{"id":2176,"date":"2021-11-16T18:56:30","date_gmt":"2021-11-16T18:56:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/?page_id=2176"},"modified":"2021-11-16T18:59:53","modified_gmt":"2021-11-16T18:59:53","slug":"2-3-40","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/en\/2-3-40\/","title":{"rendered":"\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0635\u0631\u0629 (1960-2000)"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

<\/p>\n\n\n

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\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0628\u0648\u0644: 18\/02\/2021\u0645 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0634\u0631: 01\/03\/2021\u0645<\/p>\n

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<\/a>Research Article <\/strong><\/p>\n

Human Rights and Democracy in Contemporary Africa<\/strong> (1960-2000)<\/strong><\/p>\n

Saif Moataz Omar Al-Manasir1<\/sup><\/strong><\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/p>\n

Accepted at 18\/02\/2021 Published at 01\/03\/2021<\/strong><\/p>\n

Abstract <\/strong><\/p>\n

This research addresses the human rights and Democracy perspective in Africa, particularly with regard to the rights mentioned in international human rights treaties. These traditional justice systems have historically served as an alternative or complementary to the state court system. They are usually based on the customary practices, traditions and rules of societies that have been recognized over time as customary law. There may be a large number of traditional justice systems in a particular country where different communities often have their own customary law. Customary law may be oral or written, and decisions may or may not be recorded on the basis of jurisprudence.<\/p>\n

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\u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u062a\u0645\u0629<\/h1>\n

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\u0648\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0647\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0646\u0633\u062a\u0646\u062a\u062c \u0623\u0646 \u0623\u0641\u0636\u0644 \u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u062a\u0639\u0632\u064a\u0632 \u0648\u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0642\u0627\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0647\u064a \u062f\u0645\u062c \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0645\u0648\u0630\u062c \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0644\u064a\u062f\u064a \u0644\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0644\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u064a\u0624\u0643\u062f \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0631\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u062b\u0627\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a \u0648\u062f\u0633\u0627\u062a\u064a\u0631\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0644\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0625\u0646 \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0645\u0627\u062f \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0642\u0641 \u0633\u064a\u0639\u0646\u064a \u0623\u0646 \u0625\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0627 \u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0648\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0647\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0645\u0627\u064b \u0623\u0643\u0628\u0631 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0647\u0630\u0627 \u064a\u0639\u0646\u064a\u060c \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0627\u0642\u0639 \u062a\u0628\u0646\u064a \u062a\u0641\u0633\u064a\u0631 \u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645\u064a \u0644\u062d\u0642 \u062a\u0642\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u064a\u0631 \u0644\u0623\u0646\u0647 \u062d\u0642 \u064a\u0634\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u0636\u0644\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0642\u0627\u0641\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n

\u0627\u0644\u0647\u0648\u0627\u0645\u0634<\/h1>\n

1.JACK DONNELLY, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS 1(2d ed. 1998).p35.<\/p>\n

2. Ibid.<\/p>\n

3.U. OJI UMOZURIKE, THE AFRICAN CHARTER ON HUMAN AND PEOPLES’ RIGHTS (1997).p11.<\/p>\n

4.MARK R. AMSTUTZ, INTERNATIONAL Ennes: CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND CASES IN GLOBAL POLITICS 71 (1999); Jack Donnelly, Unfinished Business, <\/em>30 PS: POL. Ser. & POL. 530 (1998); Louis Henkin, The Universal Declaration and the U.S. Constitution, <\/em>30 PS: POL. Ser. & POL. (1998).p512-513.<\/p>\n

\u0643 9).\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0648\u062c\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f<\/p>\n

5.Paul Redmond, Transnational Enterprise and Human Rights: Options for Standard Setting and Compliance, <\/em>37 INT’L LAW. 69 (2003); Steven R. Ratner, Corporations and Human Rights: A<\/em> Theory of Legal Responsibility, <\/em>111 YALE L.J. 443 (2001); Mary Robinson, The Business Case for Human Rights, at<\/em><\/p>\n

http:\/\/www.unhchr.ch\/huricane\/huricane.nsf\/O\/<\/strong><\/a> e47d352dedc39697802566de0043b28e?OpenDocument.<\/strong><\/p>\n

6.LARRY DIAMOND, DEVELOPING DEMOCRACY TOWARD CONSOLIDATION,(1999),p4.<\/p>\n

7.Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, <\/em>G.A. Res. 53\/144, U.N. GAOR, 53d Sess., U.N. Doc A\/RES\/53\/144 (1999).<\/p>\n

8.Juan J. Linz & Alfred Stepan, Toward Consolidated Democracies, in <\/em>CONSOLIDATING THE THIRD WAVE DEMOCRACIES: THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES (Larry Diamond et al. eds., 1997).p14-15.<\/p>\n

9.John W. Harbeson & Donald Rothchild, The African State and State System in Flux, in <\/em>AFRICA IN WORLD POLITICS, supra <\/em>note 15, p.11.<\/p>\n

10.Aka, supra note 2, at 371-75 (containing a more detailed discussion of these three categories of rights); Aka, supra note 7,p212-215.<\/p>\n

11.LARRY BERMAN & BRUCE ALLEN MURPHY, APPROACIDNG DEMOCRACY ,(2d ed. 1999).p.460- 499.<\/p>\n

12.Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217 A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess., at art. 7, U.N. Doc. A\/810 (1948).<\/p>\n

13.CHRIS MAlNA PETER, HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE AFRICAN HUMAN AND PEOPLE’S RIGHTS CHARTER AND THE NEW TANZANIAN BILL OF RIGHTS (1990).p.59-60.<\/p>\n

14.African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, June 27, 1981, 21 I.L.M. p58.<\/p>\n

15.UMOZURIKE,Op.cit ,p16-17<\/p>\n

16.generally Ali A. Mazrui, Global Africa: From Abolitionists to Reparationists, 37 AFR. STUD. REV. 1-18 (1994); generally ANDREW HACKER, Two NATIONS: BLACK AND WmTE, SEPARATE, HOSTILE, UNEQUAL (1992).<\/p>\n

17.UMOZURIKE, Op.cit,p 20.<\/p>\n

18. \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0646\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0627 \u062a\u0627\u0628\u0639\u0629 \u0644\u062c\u0646\u0648\u0628 \u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u062a\u0630\u0648\u0642\u062a \u0637\u0639\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1994 \u060c \u0648\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0631\u063a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u062c\u0646\u0648\u0628 \u0625\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0627 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1910 \u0625\u0644\u0627 \u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0645\u0631\u0627\u0631 \u062d\u0643\u0645\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u062d\u0643\u0648\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0636\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0628\u0639\u062f\u062a \u0648\u0641\u0635\u0644\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0648\u0628 \u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0632\u0627\u0644\u0648\u0627 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0623\u063a\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0629. \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0641\u0625\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0645\u0627 \u062d\u0642\u0642\u062a\u0647 \u062c\u0646\u0648\u0628 \u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1994 \u0647\u0648 \u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u063a\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a.<\/p>\n

19.Aka, , Op.cit, p. 380, 382.<\/p>\n

20. Ibid. p. 381.<\/p>\n

21.Aka, Op.cit , p. 405-414.<\/p>\n

22.AUDE AKE, DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA , (1996).p.27.<\/p>\n

23.Virginia DeLancey, The Economies of Africa, in UNDERSTANDING CONTEMPORARY AFRICA 91, (April A. Gordon & Donald L. Gordon eds., 2d ed. 1996).p.103-105.<\/p>\n

24.AKE, Op.cit, p. 513.<\/p>\n

25.Philip C. Aka, Leadership in African Development, 14 J. THIRD WORLD STUD. (1997).p. 213, 224<\/p>\n

26.Aka, Op.cit, p.395.<\/p>\n

27.LEE C. BUCHHEIT, SECESSION: THE LEGITIMACY OF SELF-DETERMINATION (1978).p.103-104.<\/p>\n

28. Warren Christopher, U.S.-Africa: A New Relationship, 38 AFR. REP, (1993).p.36.<\/p>\n

29.JOHN A. WISEMAN, THE NEW STRUGGLE FOR DEMOCRACY TN AFRICA 1-14, (1996).p. 35-83.<\/p>\n

30.Aka, Op.cit, p. 391-396.<\/p>\n

31.WISEWAN, Op.cit, p. 20-31.<\/p>\n

32.MARINA OTTAWAY, AFRICA’S NEW LEADERS: DEMOCRACY OR STATE RECONSTRUCTION? (1999); Marina Ottaway, From Political Opening to Democratization?, in DEMOCRACY IN AFRICA: THE HARD ROAD AHEAD.p.1-14.<\/p>\n

33.generally DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT: THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF INEQUALITY (Mitchell A. Seligson & John T. Passe-Smith eds., 1998).p36.<\/p>\n

34.Brautigam, Op.cit, p. 184.<\/p>\n

35.See Crawford Young, Africa: An Interim Balance Sheet, in AFRICA: DILEMMAS OF DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE (Peter Lewis ed., 1998).p. 341, 354.<\/p>\n

36.\u064a\u062a\u0645 \u062a\u0639\u0631\u064a\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0636\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0631. – \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0632\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0637\u0644\u0651\u0639 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0636\u0627\u0645\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0648\u0627\u0629 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u062f\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0631:<\/p>\n

M. Roberts, “A Socialist Looks at African Socialism” in W.H. Friedland & C.G. Rosberg, eds.,African Socialism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1964),p.80-82.<\/p>\n

37.Sithole, Op.cit, outlines various strategies adopted by African nationalists in their fight against colonial rule.<\/p>\n

38.W.Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (Washington: Howard University Press, 1974); R.E. Howard, Human Rights in Commonwealth Africa (Totowa, NJ.:Rowman & Littlefield, 1986) [hereinafter Human Rights]; S. Kiwanuka, From Colonialism to Independence: A Reappraisal of Colonial Policies and African Reactions, 1870-1960 (Nairobi: East African Literature Bureau, 1973) c. I.p.4-13.<\/p>\n

39.Asante, Op.cit ,p.10 – 72.<\/p>\n

40.International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 19 December 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171, Can. T.S. 1976 No. 47 at art. 1(1) [hereinafter I.C.C.P.R.]; International Covenant 011 Economic, So\u00ad cial and Cultural Rights, 19 December 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3, Can. T.S. 1976 No. 46 at art. 1(1) [hereinafter Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights].<\/p>\n

41.\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u062f\u0641 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u062d\u062f \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0647\u0648 \u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0627\u0644\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0642\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0623\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0643\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062c\u0646\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0636\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0623\u0645\u064a\u0645\u060c \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0631:<\/p>\n

I.G. Shivji, The Concept of Haman Rights in Africa (London: CODESRIA, 1989) .p19.<\/p>\n

42.Nyerere, Op.cit ,p. 30.<\/p>\n

43.Ghana, First Seven Year Development Plan (Accra: Office of the Planning Commission, 1962),p.135.<\/p>\n

44.C.F. Andrain, “Guinea and Senegal: Contrasting Types of African Socialism” in Friedland & Rosberg, eds., supra note 3,p. 160 – 173.<\/p>\n

45.generally: R. Smith, Kingdoms of the Yoruba (London: Methuen, 1969); M. Abitbol, Tom\u00ad bouctou et \/es Anna (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1979); D.T. Niane, Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali (London: Longmans, 1965); W. Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast: 1545-1800 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970); D.A. Low, Buganda in Modem History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971).<\/p>\n

46.G. Munda Carew “Development Theory and The Promise of Democracy: The Future of Postcolonial African States” (1993) 4 Africa Today,p. 31 – 33.<\/p>\n

47.A.A. Mazrui & M. Tidy, Nationalism and New States in Africa (Nairobi: Heinemann, 1984).p.67.<\/p>\n

48. \u064a\u062c\u0627\u062f\u0644 \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0627\u0631\u0642\u0629 \u0628\u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0632\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0647\u064a \u062c\u0632\u0621 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0644\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0629. \u0648\u064a\u0639\u062f \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0641 \u0622\u062e\u0631 \u0644\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0626\u0645\u0629 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0631\u0624\u0633\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0644\u064a\u062f\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u0638\u0644\u0648\u0627 \u0645\u062f\u0646\u064a\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0648\u0645\u0648\u0638\u0641\u064a\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0643\u0646 \u0644\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u062c\u064a\u0634 \u062f\u0627\u0626\u0645\u060c \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0631:<\/p>\n

Ayittey, Op.cit ,p. 69-70.<\/p>\n

49.C.0.C. Amate, Inside the DAU: Pan-Africanism in Practice (London: Mac\u00ad millan, 1986); A. Sesay, 0. Ojo & 0. Fasehun, The DAU After Twenty Years (Boulder: Westview Press, 1984).<\/p>\n

50. \u0625\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0628\u0627\u062f\u0626 \u0645\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0647\u064a \u062a\u0641\u0635\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0627\u0633 \u0644\u062a\u0639\u0627\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u062a\u063a\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u062d\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0648\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0639\u062f\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062f\u062e\u0644\u060c \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0643\u0644 \u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0633\u0648\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0646\u0632\u0627\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0641\u0627\u0648\u0636 \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0633\u0627\u0637\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0643\u064a\u0645 \u060c \u0625\u0644\u062e: \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0631:<\/p>\n

O.A.U. Charter,.p. 3.<\/p>\n

51.\u0627\u0644\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a: \u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u0629\u061b \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0644\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0642\u0627\u0641\u064a\u0629\u061b \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0631\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u063a\u0630\u064a\u0629\u061b \u062f\u0641\u0627\u0639\u061b \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0628\u062d\u0627\u062b. \u062a\u0645\u062a \u0625\u0636\u0627\u0641\u0629 \u0644\u062c\u0646\u062a\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u064a\u0646 \u0647\u064a \u0644\u062c\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0642\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a\u0635\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a\u060c \u0648\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642\u064a\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0644\u0633\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0644\u0645\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0629. \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1964\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0648\u0642\u0639 \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0642\u0648\u0645 \u0644\u062c\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u062a\u0639\u0632\u064a\u0632 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u062d\u0645\u0627\u064a\u062a\u0647\u0627\u060c \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0629 \u0623\u0646\u0634\u0626\u062a \u0641\u0642\u0637 \u0643\u0623\u062f\u0627\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0628\u062d\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646\u064a\u060c \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0631:<\/p>\n

M’baye& B. Ndiaye, “The Organisation of African Unity” in K. Vasak, ed., The International Dimensions of Human Rights, vol. 2 (Westport, Conn.:Greenwood Press, 1982) ,p.583 – 593.<\/p>\n

52.26 June 1981, OAU Doc. CAB\/LEG\/67\/3, 21 I.L.M. 59 (in force 21 October 1986)<\/p>\n

53.M’baye & Ndiayc, Op.cit,p. 33 – 599.<\/p>\n

54.BERMAN & MURPHY, Op.cit ,p.4.<\/p>\n

55.JOHN MUKUM MBAKU, INSTITUTIONS AND REFORM lN AFRICA: THE PUBLIC5 CHOICE PERSPECTIVE , (1997),p. 189.<\/p>\n

56.DIAMOND, Op.cit, p. 7-17.<\/p>\n

57.Linz & Stepan, Op.cit, p.16.<\/p>\n

58.Diamond, Introduction: In Search of Consolidation, in CONSOLIDATING THE THIRD WAVE, Op.cit, xxviii.<\/p>\n

59.DIAMOND, Op.cit, p. 7-17.<\/p>\n

60.UMOZURIKE, Op.cit, p. 8.<\/p>\n

61.Douglas Ray & Norma Bernstein Tarrow, Human Rights and Ed ucation: Overview, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND EDUCATION (Norma Berstein Tarrow ed., 1987).p.3.<\/p>\n

62.UDHR, Op.cit, p. 26.<\/p>\n

63.Aka, supra note 2, at 435 (quoting The U.N. Decade for Human Rights Education, U.N. GAOR, 49th Sess., Agenda Item lOO(b), U.N. Doc. A\/RES\/49\/184 (1995),p.2.<\/p>\n

64.Philip C. Aka, Education, Economic Development, and Return to Democratic Politics in Nigeria, 18 J. THIRD WORLD STUD,(2001),p. 21, 22.<\/p>\n

65.Aka, Op.cit, p. 269-273.<\/p>\n

66.Clapham, Op.cit, p. 424.<\/p>\n

67.Makau wa Mutua, Redrawing the Map Along African Lines, THE BOSTON GLOBE, Sept. 22, 1994, p.17.<\/p>\n

68.JOHN J. STREMLAU, THE INTERNATIONAL POLITICS OF THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR 1967-1970,p. 273.<\/p>\n

69.Clapham, Op.cit, p. 424.<\/p>\n

70.Rachael L. Swarns, African Leaders Drop Old Group for One that Has Power, N.Y. TIMES, July 9, 2002, p. A3.<\/p>\n

71.Rhoda E. Howard, Group Versus Individual Identity in the African Debate on Human Rights, in HUMAN RIGHTS IN AFRICA: CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES, Op.cit, p. 159, 168.<\/p>\n

72.NAOMI CHAZAN ET AL., POLITICS AND SOCIETY IN CONTEMPORARY AFRICA (3d ed. 1999),p. 108- 118.<\/p>\n

73.Larry Diamond, Promoting Democracy in Africa: U.S. and International Policies in Transition, in AFRICA IN WORLD POLITICS: POST-COLD WAR CHALLENGES,p.250; (John w. Harbeson & Donald<\/p>\n

Rothchild eds., 2d ed. 1995); John W. Harbeson, Externally Assisted Democratization: Theoretical Issues and African Realities, in AFRICA IN WORLD POLITICS, Op.cit, p. 235-62<\/p>\n

74. AFRICA IN WORLD POLITICS, Op.cit, p. 11.<\/p>\n

75.Salih Booker & William Minter, AIDS in Africa: Is the World Concerned Enough?, in GREAT DECISIONS 2002,p.71-77.<\/p>\n

http:\/www.africaaction.org\/action\/aids2002.pdf<\/a>.<\/p>\n

76.Aka, Op.cit ,p. 161.<\/p>\n

77.Kurt C. Campbell & Thomas G. Weiss, The Third World in the Wake of Eastern Europe, 14 WASH. Q. 96, 98, 104, 106 (1991).<\/p>\n

78.CHRISTOPHER CLAPHAM, AFRICA AND THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM: THE POLITICS OF STATE SURVIVAL, (1996).p4.<\/p>\n

79.CORRUPTION AND THE CRISIS OF INSTITUTIONAL REFORMS IN AFRICA (John Mukum Mbaku ed., 1998).<\/p>\n

80. Ibid.<\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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