{"id":4438,"date":"2022-09-03T11:21:21","date_gmt":"2022-09-03T11:21:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/?page_id=4438"},"modified":"2022-09-03T11:21:25","modified_gmt":"2022-09-03T11:21:25","slug":"3-9-23","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/ar\/3-9-23\/","title":{"rendered":"The Concept of Computational Linguistics"},"content":{"rendered":"

Zainab Abd Al-Razaq M. Al-Asfoor1<\/sup>, Weaam Hussain Ali2<\/sup><\/strong><\/p>\n

Master Degree in Linguistics, A Lecturer in Karbala University\/ College of Education, Department of English language, Zainab.a@s.uokerbala.edu.iq<\/a><\/p>\n

2 <\/sup> Bachelor Degree in Computer Sciences, A Programmer in Karbala University\/ College of Education for Pure Sciences, Weaamhussein30@gmail.com<\/a><\/p>\n

HNSJ, 2022, 3(9); https:\/\/doi.org\/10.53796\/hnsj3923<\/p>\n

Download<\/a><\/p>\n

Published at 01\/09\/2022 Accepted at 19\/08\/2022 <\/strong><\/p>\n

Abstract <\/strong><\/p>\n

The field of computational linguistics has developed in recent years. It has become an essential area of industrial growth. Computational linguistics involves both sides engineering and scientific. The engineering side is regularly named natural language processing. This component includes creating computer programs that perform beneficial language-related tasks, such as machine translation, question-answering, and summarization. Natural language processing, like many engineering fields, is based on the findings of numerous scientific sides (Johnson M. Oct. 2011). This study tends to give a brief idea about Computational Linguistics specifically its definitions, development, and applications.<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. <\/a>Introduction<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    Most readers may wonder about the reason behind making a study in computational linguistics (Sometimes the writer uses the abbreviation CL). The researcher of this study seeks to dig deeper into this field of linguistics, especially since it is a modern field. Our imagination is captured by the success of modern natural language processing software. Millions of copies of various programs, including those for grammar and orthography correction, translation from one natural language into another, and information recovery from document databases, are being sold all over the world. Despite that, we should admit that these programs \u201cstill lack real intelligence\u201d (Bolshakov I. and Gelbukh A., 2004, p.5). Although there have been attempts to solve this issue for nearly 50 years, till now there is an ambitious goal to develop software for language production and understanding. Such development would offer tools for sufficient automatic translation and man-machine communication in unlimited natural language. Bolshakov I. and Gelbukh A. explain that developers of novel software need to apply the techniques and findings of essential science, thus linguistics rather than other solutions are appropriate to solve problems of translation. In other words, the problems of translation and automatic text understanding will not be resolved by increasing computer speed, improving programming tools, or developing a large number of toy systems for language.<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. The Meaning of Computational Linguistics <\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      The scientific investigation of human language from a computational perspective is known as computational linguistics. Grishman R.\u200f defines CL as \u201cthe study of computer systems for understanding and generating natural language\u201d (1999, p.4). Richards and Schmidt, in their dictionary (Longman Dictionary, 2002), describe CL as \u201cthe scientific study of language from a computational perspective\u201d. Bussman H. defines CL, in his dictionary (Rutledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, 2006) as a field of study that combines linguistics and (applied) computer science that is focused on how computers understand natural languages \u201con all levels of linguistic description\u201d (ibid). Gelbukh and Balshakov (2004, p.25) consider CL as a \u201csynonym for automatic processing of natural language\u201d. They indicate that its main objective is \u201cthe construction of computer programs to process words and texts in natural language\u201d (ibid). Trask, R.L. describes CL as \u201cthe use of computers to perform various tasks involving language\u201d (key Concepts in language and linguistics, 1999). He adds that digital computers have made approaches to solving the practical and descriptive problems of language that were previously addressed insufficiently. Mitkov R. states that CL is \u201can interdisciplinary field concerned with the processing of language by computers\u201d (2003, p.ix). He continues by saying that CL has advanced conceptually and grown exponentially due to the creation of formal and computational models of language (ibid).<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. The Development of Computational Linguistics <\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Through the 1950s, efforts were made in the United States to employ computers to mechanically translate articles from foreign languages into English, precisely Russian scientific magazines (Hutchins J., Sep. 1999). It was believed that computers would soon be able to understand language as they are far faster and more accurate than humans at arithmetic (systematic) computations (Barach A. B., 1975). It found that earlier techniques such as glottochronology and lexicostatistics are inaccurate and premature. Thus, recent studies that use biological study concepts, particularly gene mapping, have\u00a0demonstrated to yield more advanced analytical techniques, besides trustworthy outcomes (T. Crowley and C. Bowern). Artificial processing of human languages was realized to be much more sophisticated than had been initially believed when machine translational initially failed to provide correct translations. The new area of research focused on creating software and algorithms for intelligently analyzing language data, which was given the name CL. David Hays is a member of the \u201cInternational Committee on Computational Linguistics\u201d (ICCL), and the\u00a0\u201cAssociation for Computational Linguistics\u201d (ACL)<\/a>. He is the first scholar who used the phrase \u201ccomputational linguistics\u201d. Wolfgang Saxon wrote an article on (July 28, 1995) published in The New York Times under the title \u201cDavid G. Hays,66, a Developer Of Language Study by Computer\u201d. The article covered several topics about David G. Hays. Saxon W. mentions that David G. Hays is a social scientist, and was a pioneer in the field of computational linguistics. The article indicated that Similar to artificial intelligence, computer-aided linguistics conducts language research by using computer systems, mathematical models, and computational techniques known as algorithms (Wolfgang Saxon, 1995). It is used in \u201ctranslation, documentation, and lexicography and in the study of stylistics and content analysis\u201d (ibid).<\/p>\n

        To translate from one language into another, one has to understand the system of the target language, including grammar, syntax, morphology, semantics, lexicon, and even something of pragmatics. As a result, what began as an attempt to translate across languages turned into a field of study devoted to learning and understanding how to represent and process natural languages by using computers. (Liz Liddy etal)<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. The Uses of Computational Linguistics <\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          Trask R. L. (in his Key Concepts IN Language and Linguistics,1999) explains that there there are several tasks for computers in linguistics. The first one is saving a corpus of written and spoken texts, and the second one is the process of creating concordances. The Machine-Readable corpus<\/strong> can be used to get information about the frequency of certain constructions, forms, or words. Thus, the users can get factual statistics regarding actual language use that otherwise would not be available.<\/p>\n

          \"Machine-readable-and-human-readable-formats.png\"<\/p>\n

          Figure (1): Sample for Machine-readable corpus<\/p>\n

          On another hand, Concordance i<\/strong>s the listing of words found in the body of writing. It provides researchers with an easy way to find all the passages related to the themes they are interested in.<\/p>\n

          \"sample<\/p>\n

          Figure (2): Sample for Concordance<\/p>\n

          Trask R.L argues that the combination of these two approaches is sometimes useful to identify an author from another by using the statistical examination (1999, p.33). Such examination may identify a style of one author from other, by using words or forms which match a specific style.<\/p>\n

          There are other applications of CL, which are man-machine interfaces, information retrieval, and machine translation. Trask R. L. defines machine translation<\/strong> as \u201cthe development of computer programs which can take a text written in one language and convert it into a different language\u201d (ibid). The work on \u201cmachine translation\u201d started in the late 1950s with some difficulties occupied. The appearance of some difficulties and problems with machine translation stimulated research in computational linguistics and linguistics. Grishman R. (1999, p.4) states that \u201cextensive work was done in early 1960, but a lack of success, and in particular a realization that fully-automatic high-quality translation would not be possible without fundamental work on text’s understanding, led to a cutback in funding\u201d. Besides, very few CL projects in the United States are focused on machine translation, in contrast with Japan and Europe.<\/p>\n

          \"Examples-of-Machine-Translation-errors-They-can-be-minor-and-the-readers-are-able-to.png\"<\/p>\n

          Figure (3): Sample for Machine Translation<\/p>\n

          Information Retrieval<\/strong> is another application mentioned by Grishman R. Grishman states that \u201cthe system was to extract the relevant text from a corpus and either display the text or use the text to answer the query directly\u201d (Grishman R.; 1999, p.4). He mentions the reason behind using this system which Because of the complexity of the text in most domains of interest whether scientific or technical reports.<\/p>\n

          \"Example-of-user-interface-of-Information-Retrieval-System-prototype.png\"<\/p>\n

          Figure (4): Sample for Information Retrieval<\/p>\n

          Grishman R. mentions a third application which is Man-machine<\/strong> interfaces. He differentiates it from the previous applications, by mentioning its advantages which are:<\/p>\n

          \u201cFirst the input to such systems is typically simpler (both syntactically and semantically) than the texts to be processed for machine translation or information retrieval. Second, the interactive nature of the application allows the system to be useable even if it occasionally rejects an input\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n

          (Grishman R.,1999, p.5)<\/p>\n

          Hausser R. mentions Man-machine communication as a type of machine which provides \u201ca keyboard for language input and a screen for language output\u201d (1994, p. 15-16). In other words, this machine permits the in-put and out-put for random or arbitrary language. He refers to two types: restricted and non-restricted. He explains that the non-restricted may be considered as the minimum standard for successful computational linguistics\u201d (Hausser R;1994, p. 15-16). The restricted form refers to the communication between the user and a computer, such as a workstation or a PC.<\/p>\n

          Speech Synthesis<\/strong> is another application for computational linguistics, which means \u201cconverting written input into an intelligible imitation of human speech\u201d. One of the speech synthesis techniques is \u201cproviding a \u2018voice\u2019 to disabled people who cannot speak\u201d (Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics; 1999, p.33)<\/p>\n

          \"image-asset.jpeg\"<\/p>\n

          Figure (5): Sample for Speech Synthesis<\/p>\n

          Trask R.L. refers to another application which is Computer-Assisted language<\/strong>. The computer-assisted language indicates that a student learns a foreign language mostly through interaction with computer software that sets tasks, assigns grades, and modifies its behavior based on the learner’s level of performance.<\/p>\n

          \"167511688_4144645252213304_5004647463886737334_n.png\" \"images.png\"<\/p>\n

          Figure (6): Sample for Computer-Assisted language.<\/p>\n

          Thus, the majority of effort in computational linguistics is focused on natural language processing, which involves creating systems that can accept typed input (and occasionally, speech as well), interpret it, and give the appropriate response.<\/p>\n

          Conclusion <\/strong><\/p>\n

          Nowadays, it’s important to concentrate on the computational linguistics field, since the technology is in rapid development. From the previous uses of computational linguistics, we notice it is an important field to the users. Lerner of the foreign language may depend on translation machines heavily to develop their target language. Besides that, the translator may have linguistics knowledge from the scientific side of the target language. Such knowledge involves phonology, vocabulary, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Sound recordings programs are important in developing pronunciations for foreign language learners. Recently, some programs appeared for the syntactic side, such are Grammarly, which is used to correct syntactic errors in writing the English language.<\/p>\n

          References <\/strong><\/p>\n

          Bolshakov, I. A., & Gelbukh, A. (2004).\u00a0Computational linguistics models, resources, applications<\/em>. Ciencia de la computaci\u00f3n.\u200f<\/p>\n

          Bussmann, H., Kazzazi, K., & Trauth, G. (2006).\u00a0Routledge dictionary of language and linguistics<\/em>. Routledge.\u200f<\/p>\n

          Clark, A., Fox, C., & Lappin, S. (Eds.). (2012).\u00a0The handbook of computational linguistics and natural language processing\u00a0<\/em>(Vol. 118). John Wiley & Sons.\u200f<\/p>\n

          Grishman, R. (1999).\u00a0Computational linguistics: an introduction<\/em>. Cambridge University Press.\u200f<\/p>\n

          Institut f\u00fcr Germanistik. Pp. xii+ 534.\u00a0Journal of Linguistics,\u00a037(3), 593-625.\u200f<\/p>\n

          Mitkov, R. (Ed.). (2022).\u00a0The Oxford handbook of computational linguistics<\/em>. Oxford University Press.\u200f<\/p>\n

          Retrospect and prospect in computer-based translation, by John Hutchins, Sep. 1999 (University of East Anglia, Norwich UK)<\/p>\n

          Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. W. (2002).\u00a0Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics<\/em>. Routledge.\u200f<\/p>\n

          Roland Hausser, (1994). Foundations of computational linguistics: man-machine communication in natural language. Friedrich-Alexander-Universit\u00e4t Erlangen-N\u00fcrnberg<\/p>\n

          Saxon, W. (1995). David G. Hays, 66, a Developer Of Language Study by Computer.\u00a0The New York Times<\/em>.\u200f (Available at: https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/www.mt-archive.info\/NYT-1995-Saxon.pdf<\/a> )<\/p>\n

          T. Crowley., C. Bowern. An Introduction to Historical Linguistics. Auckland, N.Z.: Oxford UP, 1992. Print.<\/p>\n

          Trask, R. L. (1999).\u00a0Key concepts in language and linguistics<\/em>. Psychology Press.\u200f<\/p>\n

          \n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

          Zainab Abd Al-Razaq M. Al-Asfoor1, Weaam Hussain Ali2 Master Degree in Linguistics, A Lecturer in Karbala University\/ College of Education, Department of English language, Zainab.a@s.uokerbala.edu.iq 2 Bachelor Degree in Computer […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"om_disable_all_campaigns":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"_joinchat":[],"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-4438","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4438","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4438"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4438\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4468,"href":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4438\/revisions\/4468"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.hnjournal.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4438"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}